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Homosexuality: A Philosophical Inquiry
''Homosexuality: A Philosophical Inquiry'' is a 1988 book about homosexuality by philosopher Michael Ruse,〔Ruse 1988. p. iii.〕 who surveys different theories and evaluates the moral status of homosexual behavior. The book has been both praised and criticized by scholars.〔Posner 1992. p. 101.〕〔Stein 1999. p. 350.〕
==Summary==
Ruse defines a homosexual as a, "person whose erotic yearnings and fantasies are directed toward his/her own sex and whose activities are influenced by such yearnings."〔Stein 1999. p. 105.〕 Ruse defends sexual orientation research against ethical objections by appealing to the value of truth.〔Stein 1999. p. 338.〕 He rejects social constructionist views of sexual orientation〔 and defends the value of hormonal studies, summarizing the research.〔Halperin 1990. p. 170.〕〔Ruse 1988. p. 129.〕 Ruse discusses sociobiological theories, concluding that despite objections to them, they are scientific and potentially helpful in understanding homosexuality.〔Murphy 1997. p. 234.〕〔Ruse 1988. p. 148.〕 Ruse argues that psychological, hormonal and sociobiological hypotheses may be complementary rather than in conflict with each other.〔Futuyma 1988.〕 Ruse defends Sigmund Freud against the charge that his theories are untestable, finding Adolf Grünbaum's arguments against Karl Popper's view that psychoanalytic theories are pseudo-scientific because they can never be falsified to be decisive. He is also unconvinced by the criticism of Freud made by Roger Scruton in his ''Sexual Desire'' (1986). Whereas Scruton argues that genuine science does not involve metaphor, Ruse finds that "metaphor runs rampant through science from physics to sociology".〔Ruse 1988. pp. 30-31.〕 Ruse rejects Irving Bieber's adaptational theory of homosexuality, but maintains that judgment should be reserved on other psychoanalytic theories: they are legitimate hypotheses, but none of them is supported by adequate evidence. Though the causes of sexual orientation are unknown, Ruse believes that people do not choose their sexual orientations. Ruse explores the issue of whether homosexuality is an illness, concluding that in general it is not.〔
Discussing ethical issues, Ruse distinguishes between involuntary inclination and willful behavior, arguing that while a homosexual orientation is morally blameless, this is not necessarily true of homosexual behavior.〔Murphy 1997. p. 232.〕〔Ruse 1988. p. 176-202.〕 Ruse finds no justification for homosexual or heterosexual promiscuity, but nevertheless maintains on utilitarian grounds that people should be free to be promiscuous.〔 He criticizes ethical arguments that appeal to scientific claims about the naturalness or unnaturalness of homosexuality,〔Stein 1999. p. 299.〕〔Ruse 1988. pp. 176-202.〕 for example the views of the Greek philosopher Plato, according to whom homosexual behavior did not occur in animals. Ruse finds this claim to be mistaken,〔Murphy 1997. p. 250.〕〔Ruse 1988. p. 189.〕 and dismisses the idea that homosexuality is unnatural. Ruse argues that both neo-Kantian and utilitarian theories of the just state must affirm the moral worth of homosexual relationships and support equal rights for homosexuals and heterosexuals.〔
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